White Australia

The movement to have a “White Australia” began in colonial times, with the Australian colonies passing legislation to restrict non-white immigration, with some legislation specifically targeting Chinese immigrants.

When the six colonies federated in 1901, a “White Australia Policy” was created, to restrict non-white immigration on a federal basis, and to deport the thousands of indentured workers from the Pacific Islands who were working in Australia (mostly employed in the canefields of Queensland).

The main legislative basis for the White Australia Policy was the Immigration Restriction Act. The importance that was placed upon the creation of a White Australia Policy can be seen in the fact that the Immigration Restriction Bill was the first piece of proposed legislation which was initiated in the newly-formed Australian parliament, on 5 June 1901.

Articles, letters, and poems regarding White Australia:
(Arranged in chronological order.)

This list includes articles, letters, and poems regarding: The White Australia Policy; advocacy for, or opposition to, a White Australia; non-white immigration (especially Chinese immigration in the early years); non-whites in Australia; and related issues.

Chinese Immigration [song by Charles Thatcher, 1857]
A song written by Charles Thatcher. Published in Thatcher’s Colonial Songster (1857).

Anti-Chinese movement [1 August 1861]
A report on a public meeting held to oppose Chinese immigration into Australian (the meeting took place soon after the Lambing Flat riots). Published in The Sydney Morning Herald (Sydney, NSW).

The Chinese and the diggers at the Rocky River [letter to the editor, 3 August 1861]
A letter from a miner, regarding problems between European and Chinese miners at the Rocky River goldfield. Published in The Maitland Mercury and Hunter River General Advertiser (Maitland, NSW).

Special Report from Cape River Gold-Fields [poem, 7 November 1868]
A poem which is critical of the Chinese on the goldfields. Published in The Queenslander (Brisbane, Qld.).

The Chinese in Australia: Their vices and their victims [The Bulletin, 21 August 1886]
An article which is critical of Chinese immigrants in Australia. Published in The Bulletin (Sydney, NSW).

“The Chinese must go” [The Bulletin, 21 August 1886]
An article which is critical of Chinese immigrants in Australia. Published in The Bulletin (Sydney, NSW).

The Chinese [28 May 1887]
An article which is critical of Chinese immigration to Australia. Published in the Newcastle Morning Herald & Miners’ Advocate (Newcastle, NSW).

“Australia for the Australians!” [The Bulletin, 2 July 1887]
An article which defines “Australian” as someone who is white and supports a White Australia: “By the term Australian we mean not those who have been merely born in Australia. All white men who come to these shores — with a clean record — and who leave behind them the memory of the class-distinctions and the religious differences of the old world; all men who place the happiness, the prosperity, the advancement of their adopted country before the interests of Imperialism, are Australian. … No nigger, no Chinaman, no lascar, no kanaka, no purveyor of cheap coloured labour, is an Australian.” Published in The Bulletin (Sydney, NSW).

Australia for the Australians [poem, 9 May 1888]
A poem which is critical of Asians competing against white Australians for employment and business. Published in The Evening Journal (Adelaide, SA).

Nationalism in Australia [20 October 1888]
This article questions whether Britain might hinder the interests of White Australia. Published in The Brisbane Courier (Brisbane, Qld.).

The Barcoo [10 September 1889]
Includes a brief report on the attitude of white shearers towards non-white shearers: “At Wellshot, where sixty-four shearers are employed, all are of one mind, viz., that according to the first principles of the Union, no coloured labour is to be allowed in any capacity; in short, Australia for the Australians, and a white Australia is their motto.” Published in The Morning Bulletin (Rockhampton, Qld.).

The black streak in Queensland [25 April 1892]
This article opposes the importation of Kanakas into Queensland. Published in The National Advocate (Bathurst, NSW).

[The speeches of the members for Balmain] [27 May 1892]
A report on speeches made by parliamentarians representing the NSW state electorate of Balmain, with some comments made regarding Kanakas (Pacific Islanders). Published in the Evening News (Sydney, NSW).

The Australian Nation — When? [poem, 13 October 1894]
A poem which calls for the federation of Australia, including various pre-conditions considered to be necessary for the establishment of the new nation (including “When the rabbits are abated and the Chinese exterminated”). Published in The Worker (Brisbane, Qld.); previously published in Boomerang (Melbourne, Vic.).

The Yellow Wave [novel by Kenneth Mackay, 1895]
A novel written by Kenneth Mackay. The story, which includes a military invasion of Australia by Chinese troops (orchestrated by Russia), is set in a time when there were concerns over Russian military intentions towards Britain and the British Empire (including Australia).

Federation and a white Australia [21 September 1895]
A letter, from Hector Lamond, in which he says “Like the first approach of a repulsive disease, the colored agony made its appearance — a few brown spots upon the fringes of white Australia. … This invasion, peaceful though it be, can only progress at the expense of the white Australian nation we fondly hope is to be. … It needs no inspiration to foretell the result — the gradual supplanting of the white races”. Published in The Worker (Wagga Wagga, NSW).

The Chinese question: Speech by Mr. Kenneth Mackay, M.L.A. [10 September 1896]
A report on a speech by Kenneth Mackay (a member of the Queensland parliament), in which he said “We want a white Australia … no Chinamen, Japanese or Asiatics need apply. … the alien must go … Australia must be a white, not a piebald nation. … if you want a policy which will not only give you a white Australia, but also work for white Australians to do, you must sweep aside for ever this labour-free-trade combination which has fooled and robbed you too long, and rear in its place a national policy built on the only safe and sure foundation — labour and protection.” Published in The Australian Star (Sydney, NSW).

The white man for a pinch [2 January 1897]
This article argues against the notion that white men are unsuited to work in the tropical areas of Australia. Published in The Worker (Brisbane, Qld.).

Cr. J. Charles is a candidate [election statement of Joseph Charles, 24 March 1901]
An advertisement for Joseph Charles (an independent parliamentary candidate), in which he states “I want not Australia for the Australians, but Australia for the white man who will come here prepared to discharge the obligations of citizenship.” Published in The West Australian Sunday Times (Perth, WA).

To the Electors of Western Australia [election statement of Henry Saunders, 24 March 1901]
An advertisement for Henry John Saunders (a Free Trade parliamentary candidate) for the Senate, in which he advocates for “1. A Freetrade Revenue Tariff. 2. Immediate Construction by the Commonwealth of the Transcontinental Railway. 3. A White Australia.” Published in The West Australian Sunday Times (Perth, WA).

A Last Word [poem, 30 March 1901]
A poem which calls upon people to vote for the Labor Party and a White Australia in the first federal election in Australia. Published in The Worker (Brisbane, Qld.).

The Last Word [30 March 1901]
An article regarding the Labor movement’s opposition to Kanaka immigration, in the context of the first federal election in Australia. The article says that voters have two choices: “Australia is to be saved from the coloured curse, to be relieved from strikes, to be famous for having no paupers or poor-houses, to be a government of, by and for the people. Or else to be a mongrel nation torn with racial dissension, blighted by industrial war, permeated with pauperism, and governed by cliques of lawyers and bankers and commercial and financial adventurers. The man who votes against the Labour candidates will be bequeathing a terrible birthright to his children in the shape of the coloured alien curse.” Published in The Worker (Brisbane, Qld.).

To the Polls! Oh Workers! [30 March 1901]
An article regarding the Queensland Labor Party’s support for a White Australia, in the context of the first federal election in Australia. The article says “Every member of the Labour party is in his place striving to win a great and lasting victory for the purity of the Australian race and the future free and glorious destiny of the Australian Nation.” Published in The Worker (Brisbane, Qld.).

Vote for Labour [poem, 30 March 1901]
A poem which calls for people to vote for Labor candidates, saying “Come forth White Australians”. Published in The Worker (Brisbane, Qld.).

A White Australia [30 March 1901]
An article which advocates voting for the Labor Party. The article says “The fight is at hand — for a White Australia, the greatest and most pregnant question that has ever been placed before the Australian people.” Published in The Worker (Brisbane, Qld.).

The colour question [15 June 1901]
An article regarding problems with getting aspects of the White Australia Policy past the approval process of the British Colonial Office, which at that time still had the power to disallow Australian legislation. Published in The Morning Bulletin (Rockhampton Qld.).

The Immigration Restriction Bill [3 September 1901]
This article, published in The Sydney Morning Herald, reiterates the concerns of its correspondent, Andrew Barton (“Banjo”) Paterson, regarding the immigration of Asians into Australia.

Keep off the grass [11 October 1901]
An editorial, published in The Independent (Deniliquin, NSW), critical of the Barton government’s acceptance of the British government’s directive to not create an explicitly racial immigration law.

The alien question [21 February 1902]
An article which opposes the immigration of “aliens”. Published in The Northern Argus (Clare, SA).

The fruit trade and “White Australia” [13 May 1903]
A section from the “Victorian rural notes” column, by W. G. McKinney, published in The Australian Town and Country Journal (Sydney, NSW), regarding the law which prohibited Australian mail being carried by ships which employed non-white labour.

The Coloured Conquest [novel by “Rata” (Thomas Richard Roydhouse), 1904]
A novel written by Thomas Richard Roydhouse, using the pseudonym of “Rata”. The basic idea of the story is that Japan, with the backing of many non-white nations, leads a successful conquest of the white nations of the world. The novel’s focus centres on an Australian man and his sweetheart.

A White Australia: What it means [by Oswald P. Law and W. T. Gill, January 1904]
This article supports Australia’s immigration restriction legislation and the return of the Kanakas to the Pacific Islands, saying that with the completion of the latter: “Australia will have taken a second step towards the realisation of her great national ideal — purity of race and the preservation of Greater Britain for the Anglo-Saxon stock”. Published in The Nineteenth Century and After (London, England).

Christian Russ and pagan Jap. [by Mary Gilmore, 16 April 1904]
An article, by Mary Gilmore, in which she says, regarding the Japanese, “purity of race … gives patriotism. Patriotism gives ideality, and ideality the desire to excel.” Published in The Clipper (Hobart, Tas.).

The Aliens [poem by “Dryblower” Murphy, 8 May 1904]
A poem which opposes the immigration of “aliens”, written by “Dryblower” Murphy. Published in The Sunday Times (Perth, WA). A slightly different version was printed in 1935, in which the 4th and 5th stanzas of the 1904 version were replaced by a different stanza.

Give Our Own a Show! [poem, 2 February 1906]
A poem which attacks those who are critical of a White Australia. Published in the Peak Hill Express (Peak Hill, NSW).

Mr. Deakin in Sydney [24 May 1906]
A report on a speech given by Prime Minister Alfred Deakin, in which he calls for the protection of Australian industries by keeping out “the shoddy products of all the cheap labour markets of the world”, and links the use of tariff barriers to immigration barriers, saying “If you are Australians, recognise at the very beginning the possibilities of this country, and that the only means of holding it, and the only means of making it a White Australia, is to adopt an Australian policy for an Australian people.” Published in the Catholic Press (Sydney, NSW).

Mr. J. J. Kenneally at Broadford [7 September 1906]
A report on an election speech made by James Jerome Kenneally (a Labor Party candidate and author of
The Complete Inner History of the Kelly Gang and Their Pursuers): “They lived in a British community and it was their desire to maintain it so. They should refuse citizenship to those of a lower standing than themselves. … If we want to be patriotic we must keep them out.” Published in The Broadford Courier and Reedy Creek Times (Broadford, Vic.).

The revenges of time and a question of color [by Mary Gilmore, 9 April 1908]
An article, by Mary Gilmore, in which she says “the whole world over, purity of race is its own greatest bulwark, and the greater the purity the greater the intolerance of admixture with color … there is a screw loose somewhere, when women are willing, either directly or indirectly, to mix with color.” Published in The Worker (Wagga Wagga, NSW).

The race and the alien [by Mary Gilmore, 16 April 1908]
An article, by Mary Gilmore, in which she talks of rousing in others “a sense of and the necessity for a feeling of racial pride”, saying that it is “the natural, normal, instinctive root idea that lies behind the wish to Live, to Be, to Exist. That is why a pure race, and an individual of pure race, fights against the idea of miscegenation … The point lies in race continuance, and the need for it.” Published in The Worker (Wagga Wagga, NSW).

Australian consciousness [26 August 1908]
This article contends that the Australian consciousness was increased with the visit of the American fleet to Australian shores and that Australia needed to join in common interest with the USA to prevent the “flooding” of white countries in the Pacific by the immigration of “teeming millions from the Asiatic mainland”. Published in The Brisbane Courier (Brisbane, Qld.).

The Australian Crisis [novel by C. H. Kirmess, 1909]
A novel written by Charles H. Kirmess. The story is about a Japanese invasion of Australia. In the final chapter the author writes “the Commonwealth must get ready for its relentless march to the North to save the purity of the race by sweeping the brown invaders back over the coral sea. The alternative is the irretrievable conquest of tropical Australia by the hordes of the Orient. In this struggle the still larger issue is bound up whether the White or the Yellow Race shall gain final supremacy. Christian civilization cannot afford the loss of this Continent, for Australia is the precious front buckle in the white girdle of power and progress encircling the globe.”

Keep Australia White! [song by P. F. Collins, circa 1910]
A song written by Patrick Francis Collins in support of a White Australia. It was published as a single-sided song sheet.

White Australia [23 July 1910]
A report on an address by the Rev. G. E. Wheatley, who spoke in support of a White Australia: “Australia may fulfil its destiny without the handicap of tainted blood and clashing ideals. … The presence of aliens, in any considerable number, was incompatible with the purity of the race; the sanctity of the home; the health of the community; the continuance of industrial progress; the elevation of social life; and the attainment of national efficiency and security.” Published in The Daily News (Perth, WA).

End of Australia: A London paper’s view: Triumph of the yellow races [24 October 1910]
This article is comprised of extracts from an article originally printed in the Referee (London, UK), on 28 August 1910, which attacked the White Australia Policy. Published in The Barrier Miner (Broken Hill, NSW), which added a sarcastic comment of its own at the end. A slightly shorter version of extracts taken from the Referee article were also published in The Advertiser (Adelaide, SA) on 7 October 1910.

A world’s union [by Mary Gilmore, 1 June 1914]
An article, by Mary Gilmore, in which she says that the principles of the White Australia Policy should be applied not only to Australia, but to “all the nations called white”. Published in The Lone Hand (Sydney, NSW).

White Australia [poem, 12 August 1914]
A poem which was critical of the non-white minorities which were present in Australia, even though a White Australia Policy had been established. Published in The Daily News (Perth, WA).

“White Australia” and the War [12 March 1915]
This brief article is critical of the money and effort which had been spent in trying to populate the Northern Territory with a white population. Published in Building and Real Estate (Sydney, NSW).

Towards Industrial Democracy: The White Australia Policy [by Vance Palmer, 16 August 1917]
An article, by Vance Palmer, in which he claims that cultural, scientific, and social achievements, including industrial democracy, would make Australia of interest to the world, and therefore more accepting of the White Australia Policy. Published in The Worker (Brisbane, Qld.).

Song of the Anti-White [song by Mary Gilmore, 8 April 1920]
A composition, by Mary Gilmore, in which she attacks those who she considers to be working against the interests of White Australia. Published in The Australian Worker (Sydney, NSW).

The white man’s flag [by Mary Gilmore, 22 April 1920]
An article by Mary Gilmore, in which she says that the principles of the White Australia Policy should be applied not only to Australia, but to “all the nations called white”. Published in The Australian Worker (Sydney, NSW).

White Australia’s bulwark: People are prepared to pay: What the sugar industry means [26 October 1924]
An article regarding the sugar industry and White Australia. Published in Truth (Brisbane, Qld.).

Australia First [by Earle Page, 14 November 1928]
In this article, by Earle Page (leader of the Country Party), criticizes those who advocate that the “racial barriers of Australia” should be broken down. Published in The Sydney Mail (Sydney, NSW).

Brothers [poem by C. J. Dennis, 22 August 1929]
A poem, written by C. J. Dennis, which satirically attacks a Russian communist newspaper’s criticism of Australian workers supporting a White Australia. Published in The Register (Adelaide, SA).

“White Australia” Policy: Mayor advocates abolition [17 March 1932]
A report on the stance taken by the Mayor of Fitzroy against White Australia (a position which was opposed by other councillors). Published in The Argus (Melbourne, Vic.).

The Italian Farmer [poem, 3 September 1932]
A poem which calls for a White Australia, and which asks its readers “To keep Australia white”. Published in Il Giornale Italiano (Sydney, NSW).

Can be no half-measures about White Australia [24 October 1949]
This article, by Arthur Calwell, Minister for Immigration, argues against the idea of having a quota system for admitting non-white migrants, and criticises “irresponsible” newspapers for printing “highly coloured and grossly distorted stories in the hope that they might inflame some sections of Asiatic people … in an attempt to blackmail or intimidate the Government into abandoning the nation’s cherished principles”. Published in The Argus (Melbourne, Vic.).

Australia Day [28 January 1950]
This article says “Our cherished White Australia policy, guaranteeing our racial purity and our living standards, may not be understood in its biological and economic background by captious foreign critics — and indeed may even be misconstrued and resented — but it typifies the fact that the overwhelming majority of Australians on the great fundamentals speak with a common purpose in mind.” Published in The Irwin Index and Victoria District Gazette (Mingenew, WA).