[Editor: This article, by W. G. Spence, regarding the Swiss style of government and democracy, was published in The Worker (Wagga Wagga, NSW), 2 July 1908.]
A sovereign people.
No Government to check nor king to veto. No Supreme nor High Court to pass judgment on the constitutionality of law. No dictatorial power vested in an Executive. A self-governing people, a true democracy. Such is Switzerland.
One of her leading men, Herr Farrer, says: “There is no cure for the ills of Capitalism so sure and so complete as democracy. It is absolutely impossible to be sure that the people will vote as you want them to do. You cannot either force or persuade them with certainty. Give the people the Referendum and the Initiative, let them vote often enough on public questions, and it will be impossible for corruption to exist. Have a campaign once in a while, have an election of representatives whose laws are not submitted to the people, and it may be possible to corrupt the public, but not when they can vote five or six times a year.”
We are indebted to the late H. D. Loyd for an interesting book on the Swiss. He died before it was published, but his notes were put in good hands when J. A. Hobson took up the task of using them in preparing the informative work called “A Sovereign People.”
The most wonderful fact in Swiss history is the manner in which they have held together. They are of different races, differ in religion and in language, yet they have been true Federalists and have placed the interests of the whole people above everything else. The Swiss begin with the Burgundians, a Germanic Christianised people, and the Alamanni, a Pagan people. This was in the 5th century. The nest egg of Federation came in 1231, when the men of Uri received a Charter of independence under the Abbey of Zurich from the oppression of the local lords.
In 1291, Uri, Schwyz, and Untenwalden entered into the First Perpetual League. This League was for self-defence, and the wars with Austria soon proved it necessary. By 1353 eight Cantons had joined. Their great victory at Sempach in 1386 against Austria proved what splendid fighters the Swiss were.
They were the first people to try to introduce humanitarianism into war, as the following order issued to the officers and soldiers in 1845 will show:— “Take all the defenceless under your protection; do not allow them to be insulted or mishandled. Destroy nothing unnecessarily; waste nothing; in a word, conduct yourselves in such a manner as to win respect, and to show yourselves worthy of the name you bear.” The Swiss don’t believe in farm-burning.
The federal idea.
By 1513, thirteen Cantons had joined in the Confederation, and it remained at that for 285 years. During that time sectarianism nearly destroyed them, and aristocracy came into existence. The spirit of the Revolution in France aroused them, and in 1803 Napoleon came in with his Act of Mediation and gave them a Constitution which settled State rights. It provided that “The Cantons shall exercise all the powers which have not been expressly delegated to the federal authority.” It also declared “That there no longer exists in Switzerland either subject lands or privileges of place, birth, persons or families.”
August, 1815, saw the beginning of modern democratic Switzerland, when the 22 Cantons united in federal pact. In spite of all differences of race, religion, language, and the isolation between mountains, they remain a united people. They are united because they are self-governing and take care to keep law-making in their own hands.
Their views on education are expressed in the inscription on the portico of the University at Geneva: “The people of Geneva, in consecrating this building to the higher studies, render homage to the benefits of Education as the fundamental guarantee of its liberties.”
Referendum and Initiative.
Eighteen out of 22 Cantons have no second chamber. In several it is obligatory to refer every law to the electors. In Zurich from 1869 to 1893, of 128 measures referred to the people, 99 were rejected and 29 accepted. In Berne, from 1869 to 1896, the people voted on 97 measures. They also vote on municipal affairs. The citizens of Geneva or Bale count on having six or seven votings per year.
The Cantons have the obligatory Referendum, eight the facultative, six the Landsgemiends. Only two retain the representative system. Changes in the Constitution require to be carried by a majority of the people of the Canton. Ten Cantons have the Initiative. In the Federation it only so far applies to a change in the Constitution, but there is a movement towards having it apply to legislation as well.
In the Cantons the people elect the Executive and also the lower officials. Five Cantons have proportional representation. In Federal matters the Initiative only came in 1891. The Referendum is permissive, but there is an agitation to make it compulsory. As a rule it is only questions upon which there is much difference of opinion which are referred to the people.
From the adoption of the Constitution in 1874 to June, 1906, it was used 29 times for laws and resolutions and 18 times for constitutional amendments. Of the 18, 12 were accepted and six rejected. Since 1891 there have been six votings on Initiative and only one accepted. Thus out of 53 questions submitted to the people, 30 were rejected and 25 accepted. Since 1874, 246 laws and resolutions have passed the Federal Assembly, but only those much opposed have been sent to the people. The voting of the electors varied from 17.9 to 43.5 per cent. of electorate.
The Council and Assembly.
The Swiss Ministry are elected by the people. They form the Federal Council and number seven. They draft the measures for submission to the National Assembly, introduce and discuss them in the House, though they have neither seat nor vote.
Each member of the Council is free to speak for or against the measure his colleague introduces. The fact that their measures may have been rejected by the people does not seem to make much difference to them, as there have only been two cases where a Minister was rejected on offering himself for re-election. From 1848 to 1895 there have only been 33 Federal Councillors. Their average period of office has reached 10 years.
Neither is there much change made in the Assembly. A member’s seat is safer with the referendum than under our system, as the people do not much mind which way a member votes so long as they have the final say as regards passing the measure into law. When it is accepted by the people it is law, and no power but the people can alter it or upset it. Sometimes a measure rejected by people is accepted a few years later, much depending on the activity of the propagandists who prepare the people for voting.
Socialising public utilities.
A big strike for better conditions on the privately-owned railways helped materially to carry the vote for taking them over. They are all under the Federation now except the St. Gothard, which comes over in 1909.
Under the Federal Government the hours were shortened from 12 to 11 per day, with 52 days’ rest and an eight days’ continuous holiday per year. Other additional privileges are given for length of service. Wages were also raised.
The Federation has also taken over the distilleries, and has a monopoly of the spirit trade. It closed 1200 distilleries, allowing compensation on depreciation of buildings, machinery, etc., but nothing for good will. From five to seven million francs per year of profit are divided amongst the Cantons, one-tenth of which has to be used to combat alcoholism. As a matter of fact, it is mostly spent in some form of charity. The Federation does not retain control of the retail trade, but it does all the rectification of spirit, so that the quality is good.
The town of Bale alone has taken charge of the retail trade. The sale of absinthe is prohibited, as is also the manufacture or sale of phosphorus matches.
Uniform industrial legislation.
The introduction of factories brought up the question of restriction of hours, child labor, etc., and it was found that some Cantons passed laws dealing with the matter, but others would not do so. Trade naturally went to the sweaters who sold cheapest.
Attempts were made by conferences between the Cantons from 1855 to 1872 but without success, and at last, in 1874, the people gave authority to the Federation to establish uniform legislation dealing with child labor, hours of adults, and protection of workers against methods of conducting trades which endangered the health or safety of the workers.
There was strong opposition to this movement. The sweaters and the State rights party were against it. It was argued that it was the thin end of Socialism, etc. On the Referendum the Liberals and Conservatives voted against the measure, the Radicals and Catholics for it.
Reports on the condition of things since uniform laws have been applied satisfy all parties that the right step was taken, and the Swiss people will not revert to the old “leave it to the Cantons” method. The undoubted tendency in Switzerland to-day is toward extension of Federal authority.
A party of progress.
The Social Democrats have put forth a programme as follows:—
Political Programme.
1. Extension of democracy.
2. Extension of central Government (Einheit Statys).
3. Gratuitous popular education and popular culture in the widest sense conformable to the conditions of modern science; confinement of all ecclesiastical activities to the private life of citizens.
Economic Progress.
1. The successive nationalisation of commerce, communications, industry, agriculture, and trades monopolies and State (communal) functions. In conformity with the principle that the product, after abstracting the cost of production and a sum furnishing the contributions towards public objects (schools, administration of justice, care of the sick, aged, invalids, military, etc.), should be handed over as equally as possible to all the co-producers (mitwirkenden). For which purpose, there shall be established a standing commission for economic legislation which shall settle all critical questions, find out the best methods and ways of carrying out the particular acts of nationalisation, and lay suitable proposals before the National Assembly. The members of the commission to be chosen by the people. They must be paid by the Federal Government and devote all their energies exclusively to this work.
2. The right of all citizens to work must be expressed in the Constitution, and officials in administering it must see that every one according to his request obtains a sufficiently remunerative occupation in the service of the State, the commune, or voluntary private employer, as far as possible in accordance with his capacities.
With the growth of factories there has come into existence a Labor Party with practically similar aims and proposals as our Australian Labor movement.
Growth of co-operation.
Ten municipalities own their water supply, gas, electric power, trams, etc., and made a profit in 1905 of £248,463. Co-operation has made great advance. It has trebled in eight years.
One-fifth of the whole population now deal at their own stores. In Bale, nine-tenths do so, as the societies there have a membership of 27,000 out of a population of 116,000. In 1905 there were in Switzerland 204 Societies with 140,768 members, 663 stores with a turnover of £2,164,392, profits £196,638, and dividends £161,478.
The societies have a splendid laboratory under a highly skilled economist, Dr. Hans Muller, where analysis is made of all foods, etc. The aim is to secure the scientific distribution of food at lowest possible cost, and to see that it is of the best quality.
A politically educated people.
Switzerland has had its secessionists, and, like America, blood was shed because of them. The history of every federation goes to prove that States-righters and secessionists were mistaken and federalists right. There is widespread local government in Switzerland, but in all the people rule.
Like ourselves, they have amongst them Socialists who reckon that things go too slow, but believers in self-government recognise that the pace is just that set by the people and each vote is a reflex of the sum of the various forces operating on their mentality.
Usually voting takes place at spring time, and several questions are bunched for convenience of electors. Ample time is given for discussion and consideration of the measures submitted, hence there is much propaganda on both sides, and consequently the people are politically educated.
There are no political parties as we have them. The peasant farmers are well organized, and, like other sections, their vote is likely to be affected by self-interest; nevertheless progress is steadily made.
Checking land monopoly.
As yet they have only manhood suffrage. Originally the people of a Canton met on a Sunday in the open air in one of their beautiful valleys and there discussed and decided upon the laws to be observed. This direct personal control of public affairs has to a large extent been retained by the use of the Referendum and Initiative.
From an early period large areas of land have been held in common around each settlement, and are still jealously guarded. This is called the “Allmend.” It has done much to check land monopoly as well as poverty. They have fewer aged poor than other countries, and they provide for them in some cases by pension after 60 and in others by use of the allmend.
Change and progress depend on what case can be made for any proposal. You cannot rush things. The mass must first be educated ere they adopt any new idea. This may be slow but it is sure, safe, and evolutionary. It is the way every healthy democracy must govern itself.
W. G. SPENCE.
Source:
The Worker (Wagga Wagga, NSW), 2 July 1908, p. 7
Also published in:
The Burrangong Argus (Young, NSW), 8 July 1908, p. 4 [entitled ““A sovereign people”: The Swiss Republic: Interesting facts of a true democracy”]
Truth (Perth, WA), 11 September 1908, p. 2 (City Edition) [entitled “True democracy: The sovereignty of the Swiss: A concise constitutional compendium: Lessons for Australians to learn and follow”]
Editor’s notes:
The line “The Swiss don’t believe in farm-burning” was written as a dig against the British military, who during the Boer War (1899-1902) — just a few years prior to this article (1908) — deliberately destroyed approximately 30,000 farms in South Africa, to deprive their enemies of resources, leaving many Boer farming families homeless and in financial ruin. Homesteads were burned down, crops were burned, cattle and sheep were either seized (for food) or killed, farm equipment was seized, transportation was taken (including carts and wagons), wells were poisoned, and dams were destroyed. The families left behind (mostly women and children, as well as elderly, disabled, and ill people) suffered terribly. The destitute and desperate families flooded into towns and cities, which created more problems; so the British started to round them up, and put approximately 200,000 Boers into concentration camps (as they were called at the time, by Lord Kitchener, the British commander), where approximately 42,000 of the Boers died (although estimates vary); with many dying from malnutrition and disease (they were only fed reduced army rations, with meat refused to those families whose men were believed to be fighting with the Boer forces). About 75% of those who died in the concentration camps were children. At least 115,000 Black African farm workers and servants were put into separate concentration camps, and the death toll in those camps is believed to be around 20,000.
See: 1) Robert Eales, “42,000 died in concentration camps: Is it appropriate to glorify the Boer War?”, The Sydney Morning Herald, 31 May 2017 [“The total number in the camps exceeded 200,000 by the end of the war. Kitchener called them “concentration camps”. … At least 42,000 people died in them.”]
2) Iain R. Smith, “Morbidity and mortality in the Concentration Camps of the South African War (1899-1902) ”, University of Warwick (UK), November 2007 [“The deaths of an alleged 27,927 Boer civilians in these camps (three-quarters of them children under the age of 16)”]
3) “Second Boer War records database goes online”, BBC, 24 June 2010 [“The British … introduced concentration camps where thousands of Boers died, many as a result of malnutrition and disease. … At least 25,000 Afrikaners died in the war, most of them in concentration camps.”]
4) “‘Spin’ on Boer atrocities: Letters reveal British effort to cover up true horrors of the first death camps 11”, The Guardian, 9 December 2001 [“Between June 1901 and May 1902, of the 115,000 people in the camps, almost 28,000 died, about 22,000 of them children. The death toll represented about 10 per cent of the Boer population.”]
5) “South African concentration camps”, New Zealand History, Ministry for Culture and Heritage (New Zealand Government) [“At least 40 concentration camps were constructed, holding in all some 150,000 Boer refugees. … Another 60 camps were constructed to house the 115,000 native Africans who had worked as servants for the Boers. … Between 18,000 and 28,000 Boers died, 80% of them children. The British did not bother to keep records for native Africans housed in camps, but it is believed that their death toll was similar to that of the Boers.”]
6) “Concentration camps”, War Museum, Department of Sport, Arts & Culture (South African Government) [“scorched earth policy led to the destruction of about 30000 Boer farmhouses and the partial and complete destruction of more than forty towns … Reduced-scale army rations were provided. … Meat was not included in the rations issued to women and children whose menfolk were still fighting. … Black concentration camps … held an estimated total of 115 000 people at the height of their existence. … Officially 14154 deaths were recorded but as the records of the camps are unsatisfactory the number could be as high as 20000.”]
7) “Second Boer War concentration camps”, Wikipedia
check = to block, halt, or stop something; to control or slow down the development, increase, or progress of something
dig = a cutting, harsh, or sarcastic remark; a jibe; a subtle criticism
manhood suffrage = the right of adult male citizens to vote in public elections and referendums (with some exceptions, depending on the jurisdiction and time period; for example, some classes of imprisoned criminals and those locked up in psychiatric institutions can lack voting rights; the requisite age for a voter could also vary)
per cent. = an abbreviation of “per centum” (Latin, meaning “by a hundred”), i.e. an amount, number, or ratio expressed as a fraction of 100; also rendered as “per cent” (without a full stop), “percent”, “pct”, “pc”, “p/c”, or “%” (per cent sign)
race = nationality; people of a particular national or ethnic origin (distinct from the historical and/or common usage of “race” referring to a sub-species of humans, such as Caucasians, Mongoloids, and Negroids, or Europeans, Asians, and Africans)
sweater = an employer who overworks and underpays his employees (from the allegation against an employer who works his employees so hard that they sweat profusely)
[Editor: Changed “seven milion francs” to “seven million francs”, “Social Demorcrats” to “Social Democrats”.]
[Editor: The original text has been separated into paragraphs.]
Leave a Reply