[Editor: This chapter is part of The White Australia Policy: The Rise and Fall of Australia’s Racial Ideology (2025).]
Viewed as an integral foundation stone of the Australian nation
In the early days of federated Australia, the White Australia Policy was regarded as an integral part of the national ethos. The majority of the white Australian population viewed the Policy as one of the main foundations or principles of the newly-formed Commonwealth of Australia.
In various articles dealing with Australian history, as well as in academic literature, references have been made to the founding elements of the Australian nation as an implicit Commonwealth “social contract”, which is often referred to as “the Australian compact” or “the Australian settlement”.
These elements are considered to be:
1) The White Australia Policy (immigration restrictions to stop the immigration of non-whites).
2) Economic protectionism (tariff barriers to protect Australian industries).
3) Industrial arbitration (court intervention in conditions of employment and pay rates).
4) State paternalism (interventionist social and economic policies, including old age pensions and the regulated payment of a “living wage”).
5) A strong connection to the British Empire (especially regarding matters of defence and military affairs).[1]
An appreciation of the importance placed upon the White Australia Policy can be gleaned from looking at some quotations from leading politicians and newspapers.
Alfred Deakin, who was Attorney-General of Australia (and later Prime Minister, in 1903-1904, 1905-1908, and 1909-1910), said in 1901:
“white Australia … is the Monroe doctrine of the Commonwealth of Australia. It is no mere electioneering manifesto, but part of the first principles upon which the Commonwealth is to be administered and guided.”[2]
Three years later, in 1904, Prime Minister Deakin described White Australia as “the very essence of our Australian life”.[3]
The Southern Cross, a Catholic newspaper, declared in 1921 that “the people of Australia are determined to preserve their heritage for the white race … racial purity must remain one of the foundation stones of the Commonwealth”.[4]
The Daily Telegraph published an article about a 1922 speech by Billy Hughes (the leader of the Nationalist Party, and Prime Minister 1915-1923), and reported his words as follows:
“There were some people who would have us regard the virtue of our race as nothing. The White Australia policy was the foundation of the cornerstone of our greatness. He deplored the fact that there were people who would have us pollute the race, and produce a nation of mongrels.”[5]
In 1924 Truth (Brisbane) opined that Australians supported the White Australia ideal with an almost-religious fervour:
“The people of Australia are devotees at the shrine of White Australia: the peerless national creed is embedded in their hearts”.[6]
In his book The Splendid Adventure (1929), Billy Hughes wrote: “The “White Australia” policy — as it is generally called — is an integral part of the national life of the Australian people”.[7]
The Queensland Times in 1937 covered a speech by Arthur Fadden, Member of Parliament (who later became the leader of the Country Party in 1941-1943, as well as serving as Prime Minister in 1941), reporting his views on a White Australia:
“The very foundation of their existence in Australia was a White Australia policy, with the conditions of living for a white man in a white man’s country.”[8]
In 1943 the Daily Mirror (Sydney) proclaimed “our White Australia policy” as Australia’s “traditional fundamental article of national faith … this great principle”.[9]
H. R. Redding, the general secretary of the Australian Natives’ Association, in 1943, described the White Australia Policy as “a foundation block of our nation”.[10]
Also in 1943, Truth (Sydney) described the White Australia Policy as “that fundamental principle of our nationhood”. It further stated that “this principle is the very Ark of the Covenant in national faith”, and declared that “White Australia … is part of our national religion”. The editorial article also said “Truth urges upon the Australian democracy that White Australia is a vital reality in its national life and aspiration … Australia must stay white”.[11]
In 1944, an editorial in The Australian Worker (Sydney) said:
“ As everyone knows, the policy of White Australia is now, perhaps, the most outstanding political characteristic of this country, and it has been accepted, not only by those closely associated with it, but also by those who have watched and studied “this interesting experiment” from afar.
Only those who favor the exploitation of a servile colored race for greed of gain, and a few professional economists and benighted theologians, are now heard in serious criticism of a White Australia”.[12]
In 1949 Robert Menzies (Liberal Party), who was the leader of the Opposition (and Prime Minister of Australia, 1939-1941 and 1949-1966), said:
“the White Australia policy … is a vital element in the national policy of this country. I myself believe in it most profoundly.”[13]
Also in 1949, Arthur Calwell, the Minister for Immigration (and later leader of the Australian Labor Party), referred to the White Australia Policy as an “historic, time-honoured ideal”. In the same year he also described the Policy as “the foundation stone of the Australian way of life”.[14]
Les Haylen, a Member of Parliament for the Labor Party, in June 1949 referred to the White Australia Policy as “sacrosanct”:
“the White Australia policy is a passion in this country. And why, we may ask, is it a passion among the usually unemotional Australians? The answer is that it affects our survival.
… The White Australia policy, let me say, is sacrosanct in this country, it is the political ikon to which all do reverence … throughout the nation there is a feeling that the White Australia policy is as solid to-day as it was when the Immigration Restriction Act was placed on the statute-book.”[15]
A 1950 editorial in a regional newspaper, The Irwin Index and Victoria District Gazette, spoke of the support for the “cherished” White Australia Policy across the political spectrum, and of its support amongst the majority of Australians:
“Whatever our political differences and our individual preferences for particular Parties, we go forward together. On basic principles we are united. Our cherished White Australia policy, guaranteeing our racial purity and our living standards, may not be understood in its biological and economic background by captious foreign critics — and indeed may even be misconstrued and resented — but it typifies the fact that the overwhelming majority of Australians on the great fundamentals speak with a common purpose in mind.”[16]
In 1954 the Daily Mirror (Sydney) described the White Australia Policy as the nation’s most important policy:
“The White Australia Policy … has been Australia’s cardinal policy since Federation”.[17]
These examples demonstrate the fervent nature of the adherence to the White Australia Policy by its supporters in the early to mid 20th century.
Reasons for supporting the Policy varied; however, the expressed concerns of Australians can be grouped into five main categories:
1) The maintenance of racial homogeneity (a desire for “social cohesion” and “racial purity”).
2) Avoidance of racial conflicts (the situation of the USA was often cited as an example).
3) Elimination of unequal economic competition (regarding non-whites who were willing to work for lower wages, thereby leading to an overall downturn in the level of wages).
4) The maintenance of working conditions (which could be undermined by the arrival of immigrants who had lower expectations of conditions in the workplace).
5) A desire to preserve the existing Australian cultural and social norms.
Support for the concept of a White Australia permeated all levels of Australian society, and was influential in a range of areas outside of the field of immigration — such as defence, diplomacy, economics, education, farming, politics, and trade unionism.
References:
[1] Alexander Philipatos and Jeremy Sammut, “No end to certainty of state paternalism in Australia”, The Centre for Independent Studies, 18 November 2011
Bernard Attard “The economic history of Australia from 1788: An introduction”, Economic History Association
Jason Falinski, “Australia’s glorious history of policy failure”, The Australian Financial Review, 23 June 2023
Alan Fenna, “Putting the ‘Australian Settlement’ in perspective”, JSTOR [Labour History, no. 102, May 2012, pp. 99-118]
Geoff Gallop, “Australia History: Lecture”, University of Virginia, Australian History Class, 10 January 2014 [“the Australian model of political economy that emerged with federation as being comprised of four elements – White Australia, Protectionism, Arbitration and the Living Wage”]
“Australian_settlement”, Wikipedia
[2] Commonwealth of Australia, “Parliamentary Debates: House of Representatives: Official Hansard”, 1901 no. 37, 12 September 1901, p. 48074, column 2
See also: “Alfred Deakin”, Wikipedia
[3] “Australian Natives’ Association: Banquet in Melbourne”, The Riverine Herald (Echuca, Vic.), 2 February 1904, p. 2 [this comment was made during Deakin’s first term as Prime Minister (24 September 1903 to 27 April 1904)]
[4] “White Australia”, The Southern Cross (Adelaide, SA), 15 July 1921, p. 569
[5] ““Of many things”: Prime Minister speaks: Address to soldiers”, The Daily Telegraph (Sydney, NSW), 15 August 1922, p. 4
[6] “White Australia’s bulwark: People are prepared to pay: What the sugar industry means”, Truth (Brisbane, Qld.), 26 October 1924, p. 1
[7] W. M. Hughes, The Splendid Adventure: A Review of Empire Relations Within and Without the Commonwealth of Britannic Nations, Toronto (Ontario, Canada): Doubleday, Doran and Gundy, [1929], p. 357
[8] “Mr. Fadden’s advocacy: Essential to White Australia”, The Queensland Times (Ipswich, Qld.), 3 March 1937, p. 9
Margaret Bridson Cribb “Sir Arthur William Fadden (1894–1973)”, Australian Dictionary of Biography
“Arthur Fadden”, Wikipedia
[9] “Is White Australia in peril? Sneers and jeers could wreck it”, Daily Mirror (Sydney, NSW), 23 November 1943, p. 3 (Late Final Extra edition)
[10] “Defence of White Australia”, Daily Mirror (Sydney, NSW), 24 November 1943, p. 3 (War News Edition) [quote from H. R. Redding, i.e. Harold Robert Redding]
[11] “Editorial: White Australia must stay white”, Truth (Sydney, NSW), 28 November 1943, p. 12
[12] J.S.H., “Editorial: Another aspect of control”, The Australian Worker (Sydney, NSW), 15 March 1944, p. 1
[13] Commonwealth of Australia, “Parliamentary Debates: House of Representatives: Official Hansard”, 1949 no. 6, 9 February 1949, p. 67
[14] “No watering of White Australia Policy, declares Minister”, Tomorrow’s Australians: Bulletin of the Department of Immigration (Canberra, ACT), no. 13, 11 April 1949 [published by the Department of Immigration (Australian government)] [“historic, time-honoured ideal”]
Arthur A. Calwell, Danger for Australia, Carlton (Victoria): The Industrial Printing and Publicity Co., 1949, p. 22 [“the foundation stone of the Australian way of life”]
[15] Commonwealth of Australia, “Parliamentary Debates: House of Representatives: Official Hansard”, 1949 no. 24, 16 June 1949, p. 1140-1146 [changed “it sacrosanct” to “is sacrosanct”]
R. E. Northey, “Leslie Clement (Les) Haylen (1898–1977)”, Australian Dictionary of Biography
“Les Haylen”, Wikipedia
[16] “Australia Day”, The Irwin Index and Victoria District Gazette (Mingenew, WA), 28 January 1950, p. 2
[17] “White Australia must stay”, Daily Mirror (Sydney, NSW), 11 March 1954, p. 22 (Late Final Extra)
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